My UGA ANTH 1102 (Introduction to Anthropology) Class Notes, 2016

ANTH 1102

Chronology of hominin evolution (early & late ones), hominin evolutionary trends, hominin speciation 

Bipedal homo erectus population exploded as they expand from Africa. Erectus disappears in different places at different times.

Homo floresiensis (hobbit, 1 meters tall, discovered in early 2,000s) evolved from homo erectus and lived relatively recently on isolated island in Indonesia. Neandertals music instruments

Hominin evolution 

Study of human variation, race:

Human phenotype - evolutionary adaptation to environmental fluctuation (such as bipedalism and cranial capacity), human biological plasticity (altitude acclimation, heat/humidity, cold temperatures.

Explanation for biological diversity within human phenotype: adaptations to specific ecological niches produces differences in physical traits. 

Blood types - stabilizing selection of sickle cell anemia for immunity to malaria. O types mostly include Native Americans and are related to syphilis resistance. A types mostly include Europeans and are related to Bubonic plague resistance. B types mostly include Asians and are related to smallpox resistance. 

Facial features - large, long noses aid those living in area of cold weather while short, flat noses aid those living in areas of warm weather (Thomson's nose rule). Large teeth are associated with those that eat grittier food and are traditionally agriculturalists (Native Americans and Europeans).

Body shape - hot, tropical, Equatorial climate zones contain more tall, thin people with little body mass and lots of surface area (Allen's rule). Colder climate zones contain more short, round people with lots of body mass and less surface area (Bergman's rule). 

High altitudes - most humans cannot survive and reproduce at high altitudes. However, Andean populations living in the mountains have adaptations such as efficient blood and low birth weight. In the Himalayas, Sherpas and other have enlarged lungs and altered placentas. Also, highland Ethiopian populations. 

Skin color (very visible) - people with darker skin often live in hot, sunny regions and  have more melanin for protection against the sun's rays (skin cancer, sunburn). People with lighter skin often love in higher latitudes and have less melanin but can create more Vitamin D. Skin color is relative to proximity to the equator. 

Origins of race as scientific categories - Johann Friedreich Blumenbach in 1795. Caucasoid (white), Mongoloid (yellow), Malayan (brown), Negroid (black), American (red). 

Anthropology has historically defined race as a biological catering, justifying events such as slavery, the WWII holocaust, segregation, and South African apartheid. Trained anthropologist named Carleton Coon published book in 1962. On the to the hand, other anthropologists have opposed race as biological categories. Franz Boas researched IQ tests during WWI and found no connection between race and intelligence. William Montague 

Defining race: the presumed biological category (isolated subdivision of species, based on common ancestry & biological traits). It is a highly problematic definition based primarily on skin color. Skin color has a clinical distribution (populations vary with no breaks, gradual shift in genetic traits). No reproductive barriers. 

Anthropological understanding of race - not as a scientific biological categorical system as it doesn't explain human biological differences (clinal differences overlap between group, greater variation within races than between them). It does not explain human physical variation, which is explained by natural selection and adaption. Race still exists as a cultural construction of categories. 

Beginnings of culture: three major goals of interpreting the archeological record are revealing the form of the past, discovering the function of the past, and understanding cultural processes. 

Cultural material remains: cultural landscapes are man-made or modified environments, cultural features are non-portable remnants from the past, artifacts are material items humans have manufactured or modified. 

Cultural origins: first milestone is tool production. Second milestone is art (164,000 years ago in Africa). 

Chronology: people expand throughout the world from Africa to Europe and Asia to Australia (20,000-15,000 yrs. ago) and to the Americas (20,000-15,000 yrs. ago) in waves of migration. Early evidence of people found in Monte Verde, Chile from 14,000 yrs. ago. Early evidence of culture includes Clovis tradition from 13,000-12,000 yrs. ago. 

Earliest adaptive strategy 300,000-15,000 yrs. ago = hunting and gathering (big game hunting & plant gathering

Climate started to warm slowly after ice age, 15,000 yrs. ago. This resulted in an explosion of environmental diversity. Big game animals started to become extinct and plants thrived. Adaptive strategy shifts to broad spectrum foraging (more plants, less/smaller animals, grains). 

Neolithic shift arises around 12,000 yrs. ago, involving new adaptive strategies. This is the 3rd cultural milestone. No longer always nomadic; some engaged in sedentism by settling and living in permanent structures. People also domesticate animals, interfering with the reproduction of other species. 

Sedentism processes: Naturism people settle in old word Middle East 12,000 yrs. ago but retain broad spectrum foraging and don't domesticate. In new world Americas, archaic people continue as nomads and don't settle but begin domestication (plants around 10,000 yrs. ago). 

Cultural origins, domestication, and sedentism

Race, cultural origins, domestication & sedentism

Origins & impacts of domestication 

Location of first farmers domesticating (Neolithic adaptive changes). Plant domestication was opportunistic as most productive plants were selected, intentional as they were purposefully planted and selecting traits. Domestication of animals was opportunistic with dogs likely as first and intentional as a mobile food source. 

Genetic changes occurred in plants with domestication. Wild ones (small, grains fall b/c of weak joints, grow in natural range, normal pollen) vs. domesticated ones (large, grains remain b/c of tough joints, grow outside normal environment, changes in pollen). 

Genetic changes occurred in animals with domestication. Wild ones (larger sometimes, live in natural environment, normal sex & age ratios) vs. domesticated ones (smaller, kept outside of natural range, morphological changes, increased population. Abnormal sex & age ratios)

Disadvantages of domestication & sedentism: population increase rapidly/dramatically, agriculture degrades the environment, greater susceptibility to disasters resulting in insecure food supply because it is difficult to abandon settlements, less variety in diet, increase in disease because of population density, greater demand for farmers to provide labor. 

Paleopathology: study of disease in past

Shift in diet due to domestication means farmers rely on few food types. More carbs results in dental caries/cavities, tooth loss, and infection. Nutritional deficiencies emerge, including growth disruption and anemia from lack of iron. 

Increase of infectious disease due to greater concentrations of people, including non-specific & specific (TB & treponemal disease & syphilis) infections. 

Increase in labor means longer works days for farmers and lots of repetition of activities (osteoarthritis). 

Advantages of domestication & sedentism: farmers needed less land than hunter-gatherers and produce more food (efficiency), farmers have predictable food source, farming less dangerous & less damaging to body (less violent deaths & longer life spans), opportunities for social complexity 

Earliest domestication - occurs in Middle East 11,000-8,000 yrs ago with wheat, barley, sheep, goats, cattle, pigs, etc. Food production begins to spread to Egypt's Nile Valley (8000), Europe (7000), India (8000) and Pakistan (8000). The New World. Food production spread from central to South America 6,000  (& vice versa) & central to North America 4,000.

Explaining early cultural innovation: humans probably didn't shift from foraging to sedentary farming lifestyles because of attractiveness of sedentism. Domestication wasn't initially necessary in Old World Middle East or New World Americas. Population sizes differed drastically. 

Shift to sedentism/domestication: environmental determinants of change including receding ice age and warming climates. Social determinants of change including population size and social networking.

Rise of complex societies (Ch. 12)

Increasing social complexity & rise of civilization (social & cultural change)

Food production led to early farming communities in the Middle East (Ali Kosh & Jarmo 9,000 yrs ago and in the New World (Nanchoc, Peru 5,500 yrs ago & Oaxaca, Mexico 5,000 yrs ago. The results of this were higher food yields, larger populations, and greater management needs. 

4th cultural milestone = long shift toward civilization (a complex society with an extensive social hierarchy). Process for social complexity includes shift from small Neolithic villages to Egalitarian farming villages (no large social differences) and ranked agricultural communities (chiefdoms) with inherited social differences & larger populations (7000 yrs ago Middle East & 4000 yrs ago Mesoamerica).

Next, a shift occurs from chiefdoms to early state societies with larger social hierarchies. These have no earlier antecedents (6000 Middle East & 3200 Mesoamerica). There were only 7 early states. 

Early states develop social stratification (unequal access to power and prestige), social classes (social differences based on activities & economics), and specialists (making a living by doing something other than food production). 

Prime movers/motors of civilization/rise of complex societies include hydraulic systems, long distance trade, circumscription/population/war, religion, and charismatic leaders. 

No single reason explains the rise of complex societies; each region with early states had multiple reasons (interrelationship of environment & culture, difference in choices among various people). 

Cultural attributes of early states (specific traits of large complex societies): regional territory, agricultural economies, tribute (labor) and taxation, stratification, building programs, and record-keeping systems. 

Unit 3

Cultural anthropology, world systems and globalization, identity race and ethnicity 

Cultural anthropology: study of modern human society and culture, through active participation/observation using cultural relativism and cross cultural comparison 

Society, identities, and shared understandings: culture & identities, culture & the organization of society, culture & shared identities 

Past, cultural interactions, and modern global culture: colonialism (political, social, economic, and cultural domination by external power for extended period of time), past European colonialism vs. present-day colonialism

Colonialism has shaped modern geo-politics, creating whole countries, new groups, societies, ethnic groups, races, etc. 

Colonialism has created the modern world system, based on economic exchange, development, and dominance (3 specialization positions are core (consumers) semiperiphery (manufacturing/production with large labor force) and periphery (super cheap labor with migrant workers & little development)

World system emphasizes existence of globally shared culture with the spread of industrialization & resulting interdependence b/w nations, and historical and social linkages. 

World system led to expansive social/cultural interactions as well as many economic/social benefits & success. Expansion has led to destruction/loss of local economies, local environments, and local people. 

Globalization: systemic economic, social, and cultural interaction & sharing between cultures worldwide 

Modern cultures are result of colonialism, world systems, and globalization. Identities are shaped by culture (race, ethnicity, economics, kinship, gender, 

Anthropological understanding of race: race is not a scientific biological categorical system and doesn't explain differences because there is overlap and more differences within groups than between them. However, race still exists as a cultural construction of categories. In the U.S., we presume race is biologically determined. It is ascribed to you and the status does not change. Hypodescent rule: children are categorized as minority parent's racial group if parents are of different races (Blake Griffin, Blackish).

Various cultures categorize race differently. For instance, Japan (Yu Darvish) believes homogenous population is ideal. However, 10% of its citizens are minorities. On the other hand, Brazil (Neymar) takes pride in heterogenous population. It has 40+ racial categories. 

Race and ethnicity are different, yet similar. Race is a cultural category based on physical traits. Ethnicity is self/group identification with specific ethnic group. Identity is based on cultural decent, biological descent, historically known origins, and shared language. Ethnicity is more complex than race (Dr. Gonzalez, Obama).

Ethnicity can change, unlike race. Individuals can shift and be given different ethnic identities (Tony Romo, Tiger Woods).

New ethnic identities can be formed through multicultural interactions. 

Cultural categories shape interactions within and between societies. Racial groups and ethnicities exist on cultural, subcultural, national, and international levels. 

Ethnic identities in relation to national identities. Nation-states are multiethnic political units. Nationality is identification with a specific nation (Palestine/Israel conflict). 

Multiethnic interactions - prejudice is devaluing and discrimination is active practice. Cultural biases are based on ethnic status differentiation and illuminate the breakdown of multicultural ideas. Increasing discrimination includes ethnocide and genocide as well as forced assimilation (Native Americans, France). 

Coexistence can be achieved through shared assimilation (minorities adopt a dominant culture), like in Brazil. Plural societies involve interdependence of ethnic groups. Multiculturalism assumes and values ethnic diversity (the melting pot, all different, equal, and together). 

Race: culturally defined group presumed to have a biological basis (cultural categories based on physical traits). Ethnicity: personal and shared identification with an ethnic group. They overlap but are different concepts. 

Ethnicity and race in the U.S. Census. 1990 census looks dramatically different from that of 2000 (choose 1 or more)

U.S. categories of ethnicity and race are imprecise. Racialism: cultural categories of differences and hierarchies (shape personal experiences & are part of everyday behavior). This is relevant today though the black lives matter movement, the title of the Washington Redskins NFL team/Cleveland Indians MLB team, and the unequal racial composition of the student body at UGA, which does not reflect the state population. 

Ch. 16 Economic behavior & Ch. 19 kinship and family 

Economic behavior: Patterns of subsistence

Doing what is necessary to sustain human life: food, clothing, shelter. 

Adaptive strategies - means of making a living. 

Economic activity = extraction, production, exchange, storage, and consumption of material things of life. 

5 adaptive strategies: foraging, horticulture, agriculture, pastoralism. industrialism (categories describing subsistence, how economic & social structures are correlated, they are not isolated but rather coexist and overlap). 

Foraging - Hunter gatherers are mobile and rely on natural resources. Their bands of societies consist of 100 or less individuals and they have a flexible kinship structure. Their social system is primarily egalitarian, with the exception of age affecting leadership and gender roles. The San live in the desert of Africa. The Inuit live mostly sedentarily in the Arctic north. The San eat much less animal protein so Inuit men contribute more to food production than women. 

Horticulture (gardening) - Subsistence farmers use few tools to produce food from the environment. They are sedentary to semi-sedentary and rely on natural resources. They have ranked societies and a kinship based social organization. They live in the tropics and have temporary fields. They practice shift cultivation, or slash-and-burn farming. It produces the most efficient yield, using minimal labor. First, they clear the land in the rainforest using machetes. They allow it to dry and then they burn all the vegetation. The rain enriches the soil. Then they sow crops very simply. They typically have a main crop, like corn, but they have a variety of crops. They tend to crops by just watching them. Next they harvest the crops. After several years, they abandon the field and let it fallow; soon the weeds take over and a forest regrows. They move to a new area. The Maya and the Bari (female horticulture and male hunting/gathering, as is true of most groups). 

Agriculture - Involves intensive farming with more complex tools. It is a bigger investment of capital and labor with fewer types of crops and more production. Fertilizer and pesticides used. Production is consistent. Mechanization is included. Farms last much longer, possibly permanent, and they are largely sedentary groups. They are ranked and state level with stratified social systems. There are both costs and benefits to intensified environments. 

The cultivation continuum: horticulturists to industrial agriculturalists 

Pastoralism - Subsistence herders depend on the breeding and managing of herds of domesticated grazing animals. They are nomadic or semi-nomadic. Pastoral nomadism involves following herds. Transhumance herders have permanent communities and accommodate change of seasons. They are ranked societies with social system of kinship. The Basseri live in the Middle East and are pastoral nomads. The Saami are transhumance herders that live in northern Europe and northern Asia.

Industrialism - Industrial production includes factories and the sale of labor. 

Modes of production - 

Economies are systems of producing, distributing, and consuming (industrial vs. non-industrial). It is about balancing supply, demand, and needs. The demands and needs are culturally specific. 

Modes and means of production, exchange principles 

Modes of production - organizing production. Different for industrial and non-industrial societies. Employer/employee relationship vs. shared labor. 

Means of production - major productive resources like land, labor, and technology. Industrial societies are more specialized, less connected, and their workers don't own the resources. Non-industrial societies are less specialized, more connected, and their workers do own and organize production (by kinship groups). 

Non-industrial production: economic organization of labor, modes of production is based on age and gender and means of production are owned by kinship groups. Example is the Betsileo of Madagascar - young/old and men/women work together to cultivate rice in stages of preparation/planting and harvesting. 

Economic behavior: 2 questions include what motivates people of different cultures? and how are economies organized differently? 

Industrial societies are motivated by Classic Western Economic Theory, including economizing (rational allocation of scarce resources to particular use) and maximizing (trying to gain the largest margin of individual profit).

Non-industrial societies are motivated by alternative ends, including subsistence funds, replacement funds, social funds, ceremonial funds, and rent funds. 

How are economies organized in different societies? Distribution & exchange. 3 exchange systems: market principle (exchange of goods and services with a standardized value, dominant in global exchange. Redistribution (centrally redistributed goods throughout a community, common in ranked societies, like with a chief). Reciprocity (simple exchange of good and services). Three types of reciprocity - generalized (unequal but both parties are content, like Christmas gifts and hunter-gatherers), balanced (equal, like haggling in markets in Central America), and negative (one-sided, both parties are not happy with exchange, like cattle raiding.

Potlatching in Pacific Northwest: giant community celebration and festive event that displays conspicuous consumption, community leaders accumulate surplus and give it all away for free to other community members. 

Potlatching (hoarding) for individual gains (prestige/status). But it damaged the group, causing poverty. 

Potlatching was eventually prohibited. The parties acted as a system of redistribution of wealth/supplies, helping impoverished communities. It was an adaptive mechanism that formed alliances and provided an economic safety net. 

Adaptive strategies, modes of production, and exchange principles are all coexisting economic systems. Economic systems also reflect social structure. There are few direct social connections in market principle and negative reciprocity. Direct social connections are common with redistribution and balanced reciprocity. Generalized reciprocity includes close social connections. 

Economic behavior, kinship family and descent, gender. 

Living societies and adaptive strategies, understanding economic production, systems of economic exchange, explaining economic behavior. 

Organizing societies: kinship, families, and descent. 

Kinship, family, descent, and marriage are the basic building blocks of all societies. Kinship systems: culturally defined human relationships of interdependence underlying social organization. 

Family - group of two or more people related by birth, marriage, or adoption that are cohabitants (different from popular usage of word). 

All kinship systems begin with some cultural understanding of a family. Universal functions of family: nurturing and enculturation of children, economic cooperation. Different types of families: single parent families, nuclear families, extended families 

Nuclear family: family is not a descent group. Impermanent kinship structure (born into family of orientation, married into family of procreation. All types of families are of procreation and orientation. 

The nuclear family is not a universal human trait, though the U.S. ideal is "nuclear." For example, the Nayar ideal is a mother-centered extended family unit. The Brazilian ideal is a father-centered extended family unit. There is a disconnect between cultural ideals and actual practices. 

Defining descent and ancestry: descent systems are rules for assigning social identity based on how a specific culture defines ancestry. There are 3 ways to define descent systems. Unilineal - relationships are recognized through one line of descent, whether mother's (matrilineal) or father's (patrilineal) kin lines. Ambilineal - recognizes relationship through either side with flexibility (weigh one side over the other, can shift). Bilineal - relationships are recognized through both lines of descent. 

Forms of descent groups: descent group is a permanent social unit whose members claim common ancestry and kinship. Three different forms include: lineage (descent group with a common known ancestor). Patrilineages and matrilineages. Clan (several lineages, ancestor is a mythical figure, non-human ancestors are called totems). Bilateral kindred (membership is based on recognizing close relatives on the mother's and father's side).

Descent Groups, Categorizing Kinship, Kinship Structures & Biological Types 

Cultures categorizing kinship: classification systems shape how cultures perceive their social works. There are patterns in linguistic terms and categories. They define understanding of kinship and social relations. 

Kinship patterns are unique; no two people will have the same kinship pattern. However, similarities exist in defining the kinship system. 

Kin terms (genealogical types) vs. biological types: six biological types are universal (mother, father, son, daughter, brother, sister). U.S. kin terms: aunts (FZ/MZ), uncles (FB/MB), nephews (BS/ZS), nieces (BD/ZD), cousins (FBS, FBD, MBS, MBD, FZS, FZD, MZS, MZD). Prefixes include grand- (MF, MM, FF, FM, SD, SS, DD, DS), which marks one generation. Great- denotes 2+ generations. Affinal (marriage) relations include: husband, wife, step-, and -in-law.

4 kinship classification systems -

Lineal terminology: parental generation has 4 terms (mother, father, aunt, uncle), relatives in a direct line are lineal while relatives off to one side are collateral, and affinal terms describe relatives associated by marriage. It is correlated with bilateral descent as well as foraging & industrial adaptive strategies. An example includes the Eskimo pattern, which distinguishes the direct line from collateral relatives. The term cousin comprises a broad spectrum of collateral relatives. Parallel cousins are the children of a person's parents' same-sex siblings. Cross cousins are the children of a person's parents' opposite-sex siblings. 

Bifurcate merging terminology: separates mother's relatives from father's relatives. Parental generation has 4 terms (mother, father, mother's brother, father's sister). It is correlated with unilineal descent as well as horticultural, pastoral, and agricultural adaptive strategies. An example includes the Iroquois pattern, which has the same term for parents and their same-sex siblings as well as the same term for siblings and parallel cousins. 

Generational terminology: distinguishes only between generations and sex. Parental generation has 2 terms (mother & father). It is correlated with ambilineal descent and horticultural, agricultural, and foraging adaptive strategies. An example of this includes the Hawaiian pattern. 

Bifurcate collateral terminology: distinguishes relatives by mother's/father's side, generation, and sex. Parental generation has 6 terms (M, F, FB, FZ, MB, MZ). It is correlated with nothing specific. For example, the Sudanese patterns gives a different term for nearly each kin relation. 

4 kinship classification systems have linguistic terms and categories that shape cultural understandings of social interactions. Each system gives the social context to define a relationship and becomes interconnected with other parts of culture. 

Organizing societies: kinship, families, and descent

Families and descent

Kinship calculation (kin terms vs. biological types)

4 kinship categorizing systems 

Kinship systems (culturally defined human relationships of interdependence underlying all social organization)

Gender, society, and culture

Gender - a cultural construction of sexual differences. Shares ideas about categories from female to male, both culturally and biologically based. 

Biological factors - sexual dimorphism, growth, reproduction 

Cultural factors - culture adds meaning & value to gender (gender roles - tasks & activities, gender stratification - unequal distribution of power and rewards, gender types -male, female, and others). 

Domestic-public dichotomy: differentiation b/w home & outside world, domestic activities dominated by women and public activities restricted to men generally across cultures. 

Among foragers, overlap exists but men are typically hunters and women gatherers. Women responsible for infant care. Inuit (men dominate subsistence) vs. Agta (shares/equal roles of subsistence) vs. Coon (women dominate subsistence). 

Among horticulturists, women are primarily in charge of food. Men have more power in politics and economic opportunities. Matrifocal/matrilineal societies like the Iroquois tend to have less gender stratification. Women control food resources and decisions to wage war. Women have more power because of increased economic activity. Patrifocal societies have more gender stratification. 

Among pastoralists, most are patrifocal with high gender stratification. 

Among agriculturalists, most are patrilineal in which men take over subsistence and there is high gender stratification. However, they are not all that way. 

Among industrialized societies, gender roles/stratification is variable & changing. In the 1800s subsistence was mostly equal. Early in industrialization women were primary labor force. However, with immigration, men take over labor. During WW2, women take back jobs. After WW2, women take on domestic role and men dominate labor force. Now, with bilateral kinship system, it is relatively equal. 

Gender, sexuality, and orientation: sexual norms vary cross-culturally & through time. Sexual orientation - person's habitual sexual attractions and activities, not equal to gender.

Gender categories vary across cultures. Biological sex doesn't determine gender. Gender is culturally learned & malleable. Although male and female genders are universally dominant, cultural variation exists regarding multiple gender types. 

Discussion of anthropology, sex, and gender. 

Marriage patterns & political behavior 

Marriage and society, traits of marriages, marriage patterns 

Kinship, family, descent, and marriage are the building blocks of all societies. 

Marriage: a culturally approved and marked relationship (membership, type, purpose, and function vary widely). It is a universal cultural trait. 

There is no adequate universal definition, but there are patterns of similarities/differences. 

In almost all societies, marriage is a culturally approved relationship in which the community shares a symbolic celebration. It transforms the status of individuals. In most, it also permits certain sexual access. It connects two descent groups, establishing legal parenthood, creating wealth, and continuing kinship lines. In most, it is not focused on mating and biological reproduction. An example includes the Igbo female and female-husband marriage, in which a woman embraces the marital role of a man. Nuer ghost marriage. When a man dies before getting married, inheritance comes into question. The spirit of the dead male marries a woman of another family and she has children. Someone stands in for dead man to bear children. 

Marriage is a group alliance that connects two descent groups, involving agreements/alliances. Arranged marriages involve negotiation and compensation. Wealth exchange between unilineal groups = bridewealth (payment made to bride's family), dowry (payment made by bride's family, but not necessarily to groom, instead it is like a wedding gift. However, in some societies, if dowry isn't large enough then groom's family might attack the bride. Violence has ensued in India as  a result)

Marriage participants vary. Monogamy = single spouse marriage, polygamy = multiple spouse marriage. Two types of polygamy: polygyny - multiple wives marriage, relatively common. Polyandry - multiple husbands marriage, relatively uncommon (Tibet)

Plural marriages exist for various reasons: equalizing sex ratios, marrying late in life (resulting widows often remarry married man), political reasons (Madagascar), economic cooperation (more resources and support)

There is no single reason for polygamous marriages. 

In Texas, group of men arrested for marrying girls to men in arranged marriages with high gender stratification. They practiced polygamy, but not bigamy. They also artificially created unequal sex ratios. 

All cultures have incest taboos, or cultural prohibitions against sexual and/or marital relations with a close relative. It varies though because so does the definition of close relatives. Unilineal societies (like the Anumami), as opposed to industrial societies, view relationships with cross cousins differently and believe they are preferred marriage partners. Strict patrilineal groups do not believe half-siblings are related and they often marry one another, sharing a parent. 

Explanations for universality of incest taboos: not an instinctive biological response (but rather a learned cultural one), not responsible for biological degeneration (although, it reduces the size of the gene pool), marrying out and incest taboos promote wider social networks, increasing connections/interactions. 

Exogamy: marriage outside of a defined social or kin group (almost always arranged)

Endogamy: marriage inside of a social or kin group. Royal marriages, like Charles and Diane were last British royalty related and married. Caste marriages abide by hierarchical structure. Homogamy is marriage of two people within the same social group and similar backgrounds. 

Kinship classifications worksheet 

Marriage patterns, divorce patterns, political structures and behavior 

In the United States, it is legal to marry first cousins. 

Divorce is relatively uncommon in patrilineal groups, which have high gender stratification (women don't have much power and men don't need to do it). 

Divorce is relatively common among matrilineal societies, which have low gender stratification. 

U.S. society has changing gender stratification. New kinship system resulted in more divorced. Shifting economic conditions affect divorce rates. The Great Depression (and other economic disasters, like the Great Recession of 2008) decrease divorce rates. During WW2, divorces increased. They then decreased when men return from war and have GI bill. They have since steadily increased until the 1970s, when they gradually decreased. 

Socio-Political structures: how communities manage and maintain organization, power to influence people's choices and behaviors (community protection, internal order, external relations.

Types include: band, tribe, chiefdom, state. 

Band - small-kin based group that is egalitarian and uses foraging adaptive strategies (Inuit have conflict resolution system and lack formal political structure, song battles occurred when wives were stolen, often willingly, rather than resorting to murder). 

Tribe - large-kin based social group that is somewhat egalitarian and associated with horticulture/pastoralism, example includes Kapauku of New Guinea (egalitarian horticulturists/agriculturists, community management structure, Big Man society in Indonesia)

Chiefdom - centralized polity, two or more communities, ranked society with single leader, horticulturists/agriculturalists, redistribution economy, example includes Polynesian chiefdoms (ranked agriculturalists, conflict resolution system with status based on kinship and chief as arbiter)

State - centralized political system, stratified socio-economically, specialization (including in bureaucracy and military structure), makes laws and uses force 

Political structures, political behavior, anthropology of religion, expression of religion 

Political process: social control (parts of culture that actively maintain social interactions, including formal control with political systems that have threat of force and informal political institutions that lack threat of force). An example of informal ones are political parties. Another example includes hegemony, in which cultural behavior becomes naturalized (such as caste system in India and former segregation in U.S.). Another example includes social pressure (gossip, peer pressure, accusations, such as a silly kid in Belizean village called a witch). 

Resistance to control occurs in forms of public transcript, such as active, open protest by people in U.S. Hidden transcripts also exist. 

Religion, art and globalization 

Anthropology, expression, and function of religion 

Religion = shares set of ideas about spiritual reality, cultural universality of purpose 

A religion is an organized set of beliefs that often overlaps political/social structures. Religion consists of everyday personal experiences. 

Expressions of religion: 

Animism - belief in soul/spirit 

Totemism - belief in descent from or connection to mythical being or force (aborigines in Australia, UGA's Hairy Dawg school mascot purebred bulldog)

Ritual - stylized, repetitive, shared social practices aside from the routine of daily life, social acts (liturgical orders like church service on Sundays, NCAA March madness, college football games, rites of intensification like funerals, rites of passage mark important life cycle changes with at least three stages including pregnant women with separation, liminality, incorporation and including graduation ceremonies)

Mana - belief in supernatural impersonal force (Malaysians and Polynesians control of power)

Magic - supernatural techniques intended for specific aims, controlling the uncontrollable (incantations to bless sailing trips and avoid wind, voodoo dolls), practical magic (faith healing of illness) 

Magic and mana overlap by controlling the uncontrollable. Belief in luck and superstitions in sports events (John Isner eats peanut butter and honey sandwiches, Steph Curry pre-game shooting routine)

Functions of religion: influence, action, and social control. Environmental adaptation (adapting human behavior to local ecosystems) with examples of Bali water ritual (field irrigation for rice farms) and Hinduism. 

A means for influencing beliefs and behaviors by engaging emotional responses (like healing and encouraging charity which are positive, and sanctioning violence which is negative or defining right from wrong through written code of ethics or informal means), emphasis on afterlife (reincarnation)

Anthropology of art, culture and art, globalization and culture change 

Art = object or event that evokes aesthetic reaction, expressive culture 

Aesthetic quality is defined differently in different places. Landscapes, abstracts, etc . valued. 

Location defines art with museums like the High Museum of Art in industrial societies. Totem poles outside clan houses and embroidery of Mayan women. 

Purpose of art for the sake of representing a cultural aspect and evoking feelings of pleasure in others (Sistine Chapel, Michelangelo). Calibari spirit houses look like doll houses but protect people in real houses. 

Art is culturally defined. 

Industrial societies believe art is an individual endeavor. Dale Chihuly sculptures in high demand (example at Botanical Gardens). Non-industrial societies consider the production of art more collective (funeral poles literally believed to embody dead people). Chihuly's art is named after him even though he is blind in one eye and doesn't produce his own art. 

Transmission of art varies. In Western societies, people are trained to be artists, formally learning how to create art in distinct, educational settings. Others learn through informal practice (street art, graffiti). Non-industrial societies also learn art in formal settings, usually through family. Informal practice also exists in places like Nigeria. 

Understanding and appreciating art, especially modern art, in industrial societies is difficult. Understanding of it is learned and separated. Learning about art provides meaning. In non-industrial societies, art is more integrated in society (Asmat, Nigerians, Mayans).

Overlapping understandings exist (there are exceptions to the rule). For example, Bolton dining hall is a piece of art but not always noticed because it is integrated. Artist named Levi in Arizona creates separate art as an individual. 

Art reflects culture: economics, kinship, gender, marriage, politics, religion 

The world system theory emphasizes the existence of globally shared culture. Societies are interdependent and interconnected. 

Is it leading to a homogenous culture? Today's world system has led to acculturation and Westernization. Cultural diffusion and acculturation are driven by migration, advancements in technology (increase spread of information), and media. 

Global cultural influences (Star Wars, cellphones, Top Gear) are perceived creatively outside of the U.S. and interpreted locally. 

Globalization: systematic economic, social, and cultural interaction and sharing between cultures worldwide (Sushi, Pokémon, and McDonald's spread)

Global cultural homogenization does not exist but cultures are constantly changing, identities are being created and shifting, and people are resisting external influences and maintaining old traditions. 

FINAL REVIEW 

definition of anthropology (holistic and comparative), culture, evolution, environment. 

Four fields: biological, archaeological, linguistic, cultural

Academic & applied (majority) anthropology 

Fieldwork - problem oriented, longitudinal, team research 

Culture concept: set of learned behavior and ideas that humans acquire as members of societies 

Culture traits/ learned, shared, symbolic, culture & nature, all-encompassing, integrated, adaptive/maladaptive, individual practice, levels 

Culture change: diffusion, acculturation, independent innovation 

Cultural relativism vs. ethnocentrism 

Culture & language interrelated, Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, focal vocabularies

Studying human diversity, creationism vs. 

Modern synthesis of evolution: Darwin, Mendelian genetics, biochemical genetics, population genetics, punctuated equilibrium (explains human biological beginnings and traits)

Primitive primate traits - grasping, stereotypic sight, tactile senses, brain/body size ratio, parental investment, sociability

Prosimians. Anthropoids, old world monkeys, hominoids, hominids, 

Primatology: terrestrial & arboreal

Hominins (bipedal). Trends - bipedalism, dental changes, cranial capacity, material culture 

Hominin evolution: Ardipithecus, Australopithecus (3 paths)

Human variation - biological diversity because of evolutionary adaptation

Race - presumed, not scientific categorization

Archaeology 

Cultural origins: tool production, art, sedentism & domestication, rise of civilization 

Neolithic changes b/c of environmental and social determinants 

Social organization: egalitarian, ranked, state 

Theories to rise of complex societies 

Early states collapsed for various reasons 

Colonialism, world system, globalization 

Race & ethnicity

Adaptive strategies 

Economies: modes and means of production 

What motivates people and how are economies organized?

Kinship systems 

Family

3 principles of descent (unilineal)

3 types of descent groups (clan)

Four classification systems 

Gender, sexuality, and orientation (roles, identities, stratification)

Marriage 

Incest taboos 

Endogamy 

Political systems

Religion, expressions and functions of it 

Art 

Globalization, not homogenization